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Backcountry Users Guide to Safe and Responsible Use
of Glacier National Park's Wilderness

by Rolf L. Larson

Leave No Trace' Backcountry Use
"A simple equation exists between freedom and numbers, the more people, the less freedom." - Royal Robbins

Glacier National Park is a contradiction. It has been created to both be used and preserved. As a users, we are at the center of this moral dilemma. We love and want to protect this fragile resource. At the same time, however, we are wearing it out.

While careful use creates little impact, Glacier's unique combination of high-altitude environment and intense visitor use threatens this environment even under the best circumstances. Since its inception in 1910, about half of its total visitors have visited the park during the past decade. The majority of those visitors visit during July and August, the peak alpine growing season. The maximum impact comes during the most critical time for plants and animals to store up energy to survive the long winter.

Backcountry use adds to the stress. On trails, users are somewhat manageable. In high country, however, it takes much less impact to change the landscape. Because of the severity of the climate, plant and animal communities are just not capable of recovering from intense impact.

You must always assume someone will follow in your footsteps, remembering that you are not alone in your use of wilderness. Even though impact may seem small, the over-all impact of wilderness users is cumulative! We must all learn to willingly accept voluntarily measures of restraint, so that a healthy balance can be maintained between use and preservation of fragile wilderness settings.

Scenario To Illustrate The Point
A large group of people walk in a straight line across a fragile meadow. Fragile plants are weakened. They might survive the summer, but the trampling damages them, slowing their growth. This directly effects how well they survive the following winter.

The following summer, in spots, the plant cover is broken exposing mineral soil. Not protected by plant cover, the dark soil is more sensitive to temperature changes and water erosion. Darker areas absorb both heat and cold more quickly. What results is called thermal raising. This process loosens the soil so that it is more vulnerable to wind and a natural channel to drain moisture. The increased impact of cold on open ground more easily penetrates the open soil, allowing cold to attack nearby plant roots. This further expands the damage.

What results looks like a faint animal trail. As such a trail becomes more noticeable, it attracts more use. This also accelerates erosion.

The combination of all of these forces working on the meadow results in unwanted (and unplanned) trails. As visitation to areas increases, more and more people come to the remote area. They see and use the trail. Unmanaged, the trail erodes into a trench. (Even without significant use, if a damaged area is on a slope, water can erode damaged downhill paths into small gullies.)

When the trail becomes too difficult to use, people begin to hike parallel to it, or go elsewhere, starting the process over again. The result can become a honeycomb of trails that mar the landscape. There are examples of this process in high use areas all along the Rocky Mountains.

If impact can be avoided, off-trail use can more freely be allowed, preserving both the opportunity for us to enjoy off-trail use and enjoy the pristine experience.

Here are some ways to help prevent destructive cycles from occurring.

Plan Your Trip Carefully
The first step in practicing "leave no trace" backcountry travel involves careful trip planning. Before starting any long outing, especially an off-trail outing, carefully study your route. For each day in the backcountry, plan elevation gain and/or loss and mileage that are suitable for all members in your party. (See the "Other sources" section at the back of this book.)

Take care in selecting the proper clothing, equipment and food for a safe and enjoyable outing. Prior to departing from the trailhead, load and pack your gear securely in you pack. Do not have items loosely hung from your pack. Keep essential items such as rain gear in a place that is secure, yet easily accessible.

Spread Out When Walking Off Trail
When walking off trail (especially in tundra or meadow areas), spread out. Do not follow in each other's footsteps.

• When selecting a cross-country route over vegetation, select routes that permit people to spread out. Ten people tramping in a row can crush plant tissue beyond recovery and create channels for erosion.
• Scree sliding is enjoyable, but can cause accelerated erosion. Spread out if you must travel over vegetated areas and remember that only a few tramplings can kill or seriously damage plants.
• When descending loose scree, it is better to move slowly than quickly. Rapid descents are fun, but they move scree down slope more quickly, causing the slope to erode more quickly.
• Take particular care when ascending or descending steep slopes, or crossing areas of water-saturated soils.
• Where the land is so fragile that even a single person leaves a path (very wet areas or where thin layers of lichen or plant colonies have a tenuous hold on a rocky surface), it is better to go in single file so that only a single path is used.

Choose a Cross Country Route that Crosses Durable Surfaces
When walking off trail, attempt to walk as much as possible on surfaces that will not be disturbed by trampling, such as non-vegetated surfaces, snow, or rock. Try to avoid meadows and wet places.

Do Not Mark Cross Country Routes
When traveling off trail, do not mark the route with cairns, tree blazes, or in any other way. Leave the area as undisturbed as possible, so that the next group will have the same experience of traveling through trail-less country.

Use Caution when Ascending or Descending Steep Slopes
When it is necessary to ascend or descend steep slopes off trail, special care is needed to avoid severe erosion. It is important to spread out and avoid developing trails, to slowly switchback across slopes (rather than move directly up a slope), and to avoid digging boots into the slope.

On soil-covered surfaces, it is better to ascend than descend, because boot heels carry extra force when moving downhill. This increases erosion.

In mountainous areas, follow the backbone of gradual ridges instead of cutting down steep side-slopes. If you must hike on a steep slope, make your own switchback as you ascend and descend. Do not glissade down gravel or scree slopes. Steep slopes are often particularly vulnerable to trail development. Spreading out dilutes the trampling stress; moving slowly, switchbacking, and not digging boots into the slope reduce the impact of trampling.

Light Footwear minimizes Impact
When hiking in fragile terrain, consider using a lighter pair of boots to minimize your impact on the terrain. Boot with heavy tread patterns such as Vibram® soles provide additional traction but are also more apt to tear up fragile terrain. When backpacking, be sure to pack a light weight pair of shoes with flat soles to wear around camp.

Carry Out Litter
Carry out all litter, including food scraps, and when litter is found, try to pack it out.

Bury Human Waste or Use a Waste Amelioration and Gelification Bag
Where organic soil is present, bury all human waste in shallow cat holes, covered with soil. Waste should always be buried at least 200 feet from water. A small metal or plastic gardening scoop is very useful for digging a good cathole. In alpine areas where soil is not available, use a waste amelioration and gelification system and pack the waste out to the trailhead for deposit in trash receptacle. Whenever possible, urinate on durable surfaces. Do not need to dig unnecessary holes.

Keep Groups Small
For environmental reasons, the size of off-trail group should be limited 12 (4 to 6 is the ideal group size for both minimal impact and safety).

Plant Sensitivity List

It is important to remember that rare or particularly sensitive plants can occur in all communities. These plant communities are listed in order of their sensitivity to trampling. (This list was prepared by members of the Resource Management Staff of Glacier National Park and private Ecological Consultant Peter Lesica of Missoula, Montana.)

Most Durable

• Stable talus: level or stable talus and boulder fields with high lichen cover and few plants.
• Dry ledges: areas with thin soil, either bedrock outcrops or relatively level alpine cobble (flat stable rocks with soil between).

Durable

• Krummholtz: dwarf or windswept conifer islands (elfin wood).
• Meadow: moist to dry meadows, dominated by relatively robust herbaceous species; asters, fleabane, paint brush, glacier lily, and grasses and sedges.
• Cushion plant: low growing mat-like plants, often on windswept ridges or steep slopes; moss campion, draba and phlox.

Vulnerable

• Heath: low shrubs of heath and heather.
• Tundra: turf (dense plant cover) less than 6" high, moist until late into the year; dominated by grasses, sedges and dwarf willow.
• Unstable talus: scree slopes with sparse vegetation - very susceptible to damage or uprooting.
• Wet ledges: seeping water running over rock; mosses, saxifrage and plants in crevasses.

Most Vulnerable

• Saturated soil (most sensitive): mossy streambanks, boggy sites, very wet meadows; characterized by monkey flowers, sedges, saxifrage and moss.

Park Regulations
A number of Park regulations have been established to protect both the park visitor and the wilderness re source. It is your responsibility to know and respect these regulations. Remember that a free backcountry use permit is required for all overnight stays in Glacier's backcountry!

Introduction
There is nothing on that mountain that you need, and nothing that you are getting paid for. You are climbing that peak for no reason except those in your own psyche. - J. Gordon Edwards

While touring the Swiss Alps a century ago, Mark Twain offered a recipe for a good mountain climb: "Hotel veranda! Bottle of whiskey! Telescope!" A century later, that recipe has proved to be ironically prophetic. With the assistance of a consumer-oriented society, that veranda is now an easy chair, the bottle of whiskey is a beer and the telescope a television set. The sameness of an increasingly sheltered existence draws many to find or create mental and/or physical challenges to enhance otherwise bland lives.

Like sick animals in search of curing herbs, many of us search for meaning and clarification in wilderness environments. We seek adventure. We seek meaning for our lives. We seek opportunities to develop strength and character. We seek affirmation for our lives.

The manner in which we seek affirmation in wilderness environments ranges from such reflective pursuits as fishing and bird watching to death-defying exploits such as free climbing and white water kayaking. All too often, when we search for a specific experience, because we are not prepared, what we instead find is tragedy. We must recognize that the quest for the exotic and adventuresome experience is often accompanied by specific dangers.

In preparing ourselves to successfully meet any challenges we may encounter, we must:

• develop skills and knowledge that appropriately matches our abilities with our appetites
• gain an appreciation of our own personal physical limitations
• acquire equipment that prepares us to safely adapt to the full range of potential hazards in settings we choose to explore.

Defining Mountain Hazards

In his famous mountaineering text, Hazards in Mountaineering, Wilhelm Paulcke creates a useful model for identifying a variety of mountain hazards and what people do to put themselves in dangerous situations. Paulcke's model identifies three basic categories of mountain hazards: Objective, Subjective and Causative.

Objective hazards are forces arising from the mountain environment (rock, weather, water and ice) rather than from the person.

Subjective hazards are forces arising from the individual rather than from the environment (spiritual and physical shortcomings such as underestimating objective dangers, or overestimating personal skills and abilities). Where objective hazards remain much the same for all mountain users, subjective hazards vary greatly from person to person.

Causative hazards are the interaction of objective and subjective hazards. A person overestimating their own abilities and equipment while underestimating a hazard creates a potentially dangerous situation.

Natural Hazards In Glacier Park
Glacier National Park is noted for its precipitous mountains. The park's name comes from the glaciers that carved the area's sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock is soft. Thus it is more easily sculpted by glacial action, quicker to wear and fracture when bombarded by the combined forces of air, water and ice.

As a result of Glacier's sedimentary rock layers, many mountaineers considered Glacier to be unsafe for technical mountaineering. However, due to the unique weathering of this rock, the sheer headwalls are almost always accompanied by gentler slopes of loose rock, wind and rain worn gullies and easily climbed staircase cliffs. An experienced mountaineer can enjoy a variety of climbing problems, while experiencing a minimum of exposure.

Also, the growing concern over grizzly bears has persuaded many backpackers and climbers to include more day trips, or squeeze overnights into long day trips. People planning to visit the backcountry for only a few hours have a tendency to be much more casual in their approach to wilderness. They are likely to move faster, push themselves harder, and not be as prepared for emergency situations.

This book explain Wilhelm Paulcke's system with the day user in mind. It attempts to outline how to identify, avoid, and protect one's self from potential dangers found in Glacier National Park, while packing light and moving steadily.

Objective Hazards

Objective hazards are natural hazards that occur in mountain environments. They are the result of interactions between the atmosphere and the ground. In Glacier National Park, the greatest objective dangers are weather (moisture, wind, lightning), the varied sedimentary rock layers, year-round snow and ice, wet rock, moving water, and the grizzly bear. Let me expand briefly on each of these objective hazard categories.

Weather Forecasting

Mountain weather comes from three sources.

• Frontal weather: Frontal storms come from the North (cold fronts) and West (warm fronts bringing in moisture from the Pacific Ocean).
• Unstable atmosphere: Thunder storms are the result of an unstable atmosphere (a quick change of temperature usually the result of high temperatures with ample moisture, or the onset of a cold front.) Thunderstorms generally come from the South or Southwest.
• Mountain weather: This weather is generated by air suddenly cooled when pushed upward by mountain slopes. This source of weather is very unpredictable.

When you venture into the mountains for any length of time, you should prepare yourself for the most adverse weather conditions. Select clothing that offers protection against wind, rain and cold. Select items that can be combined in layers. Before departing, you should always know both the short- and long-term weather forecasts and have a basic understanding of cloud patterns to help you see sudden weather changes as they are happening. Always pack raingear when going on a hike in Glacier.

More Significant Cloud Types

• Cirrus clouds are high altitude clouds formed from ice crystals. Frail, scattered cirrus clouds are generally an indicator of good weather. An exception is the "Mare's Tails." This cloud indicates that there are high winds and moisture in the upper atmosphere, a good sign of approaching foul weather.
• Alto-cloud layers are middle elevation clouds. Altostratus (mackerel sky), or thickening veils of altocumulus, especially when combined with a higher layer of cirrus clouds, are good signs of approaching storms.
• Stratus clouds are low, flat overcast layers, usually not very thick. It is not unusual for peaks to bask in sunshine above these cloud layers. Nimbostratus clouds; the densest stratus layer, however, often bears heavy rain.
• Cumulus clouds are fluffy, moist clouds formed in unstable air. When small and fluffy, they indicate fair weather. Watch them closely to note if they are thickening into cumulonimbus thunderstorm clouds. Such storms usually build up during the late afternoon or evening.
• Lenticular clouds and cloud caps are smooth dense clouds. They are shaped like a lens. Both cloud types tell you there are high winds and dense moisture in the upper atmosphere, reliable signs of approaching bad weather. When you see either of these, expect high winds at higher altitudes. Cloud caps form directly above summits while lenticular clouds form along the downwind slopes of mountain ranges (along both sides of the Continental Divide).

Signs Of Weather Change

1. Layered clouds coming from the south usually mean approaching bad weather.
2. Broken clouds approaching from the north usually mean good weather.
3. Cumulonimbus clouds often signal approaching violent weather, followed by cooler weather.
4. Steady rain coming from nimbostratus clouds is a sign of approaching warmer weather.
5. Most changes in mountain weather are accompanied by some form of precipitation.

Lightning

Perhaps the most dramatic weather hazard is lightning. If a storm catches you on a high mountain slope, it is important to act quickly.

1. 1. If you see thunderheads approaching, or see lightning strike on a nearby peak, get off that peak or ridge fast.
2. 2. If you feel static electricity building around you, it is a sign that a lightning strike is imminent.

This is evidenced by a buzzing or whining sound, your hair standing on end, or St. Elmo's fire (a bluish glow around nearby boulders).

What you should do:

1. Crouch in an open area. Only your feet should be in contact with the ground, a few feet away from the base of cliffs.
2. Fold a waterproof garment and put it under your feet to increase insulation between your feet and the ground.
3. Place all metal objects (cameras, ice axes, etc.) away from you. Metal objects attract lightning.

What you should NOT do:

1. Do NOT stand at the base of a spire.
2. Do NOT seek shelter in a cave or under an overhanging ledge. Overhangs offer protection from rain, but increase danger from lightning since lightning follows rock surfaces. If your body is between rocks, such as an overhang, the chance your body will become as a short cut for electrical current increases.
3. Do NOT lie down. The more contact points your body has with the ground, the greater the chance lightening will harm you.

Rock

Glacier National Park's mountains are carved almost entirely from sedimentary rock layers. This rock is relatively soft and easily weathered. They are typically riddled with ledges and gullies, offering a wide variety of options for climbers. Many of these options are free of severe exposure. Glacier's sedimentary rock mountains are well suited to both the unroped intermediate climber and to larger parties.

The negative side of the rock is that loose rock is plentiful. Larger rock fragments generally found at the bottom of slopes (called talus) and smaller fragments generally found higher on the slopes (called scree) riddle the gentler slopes. Loose rock in Glacier is typically flat, so when dislodged, it usually does not travel all the way to the bottom.

Altyn Limestone
Altyn limestone is a hard but very brittle buff-colored rock. For a sedimentary rock it is hard, making for generally trustworthy hand and footholds. However, it is brittle, easily fractured when water expands into ice. Altyn lime stone is found along the east edge of the park.

Argilllites
Grinnell argillite (red-colored) and Appekuni argillite (green-colored) are each layers approximately 2,000 feet thick. These layers are much softer than the Altyn formation and characterized by an abundance of scree (loose rock). Handholds are not to be trusted without testing. The rock at the top of these layers tend to be cliffy.

Helena (Siyeh) Limestone
Helena limestone is a light buff colored rock (oxidized when it comes in contact with the elements). When broken open, a freshly reveled surface is gray. This layer is approximately 4,000 feet thick. It is characterized by steep faces broken into small cliffs (five to 25 feet in height), separated by narrow scree covered ledges.

Climb this formation with care. Even a minor fall becomes dangerous if you slip from ledge to ledge. Falling rock is a more significant danger in this formation. NEVER climb down this formation without scouting out what lies below. It is deceptively easy to get yourself hung up on a ledge without safe routes either up or down.

You can almost count on finding cliffs at two levels in the Helena formation: in the algal reef (a band of fossil algae usually found near the center of the Siyeh-Helena formation), and the diorite sill (an igneous layer that is usually found just above the algal reef.

Diorite Sill
The diorite sill, approximately 100 feet thick, is a dark intrusion usually found in the Helena (Siyeh) formation. Typically, it is a sheer cliff of very hard rock. Above and below the sill are about 15 feet of metamorphosed rock, a poor marble. Test your holds in these bands.

Rockfall
Rockfall can result from quick changes in temperatures, melting, heavy rains, lightning, high winds and people or animals dislodging rocks on slopes above you.

The most dangerous area for rockfall is the center of a gully. When climbing in gullies, look for scuff marks on rock or grooves in snow. Both are signs of recent rockfall. As a general rule, avoid climbing in the bottom of gullies. Rockfall is almost always channeled down the center of gullies, so it is much safer to climb up the sides. If you are going to be traveling in such environments, it is advisable that you pack and use a climbing helmet.

Warning of imminent danger from rockfall:

• a pulsating, thumping sound (like galloping horses)
• a grating sound
• a thunderous crashing
• a whistling sounds (made by completely airborne rocks)
• sound accompanied by sparks at night
• rock falling down snow makes no sound, so watch for newly carved grooves in snow to identify danger points Always cross snow with an eye exploring the terrain above you.

Actions to take when rockfall occurs:

1. Seek immediate cover.
2. If no immediate cover is available, crouch down to present the narrowest possible target.
3. If on a steep slope, press yourself into the rock, placing your head against the cliff. Protect your head with your arms if you are not wearing a helmet. NEVER look up to locate falling rock when you are on a steep slope.

Minimizing the dangers of rockfall from other climbers:

• Select a route where climbers do not need to climb directly below one another. (The larger the group, the more important it is to select routes with less loose rock.)
• Whenever possible, do not climb directly below another party. If another party is directly above, seek a sheltered spot until they pass. If they do not move from a point where loose rock may be dropped on you, move your party, or ask the party above to wait at some safe point while you pass beneath them.
• If you have to ascend in each other's fall line (the path a falling rock will take down the slope), either climb as close together as possible (not allowing falling rock to gain speed), or have only one person climb dangerous sections at a time.
• Whenever possible, angle your path up slope so that rockfall will miss companions climbing below you.

Preventing rockfall:

• Step softly so that a minimum of rock will be dislodged.
• When the grade is steep enough to merit climbing using hand- and footholds, test each hold gently to identify loose rocks. Be careful not to dislodge rock onto anyone below. Always alert all climbers to the presence of unstable rock.
• If you do dislodge a rock, IMMEDIATELY yell "ROCK! ROCK!" Everyone should join in the yelling so climbers below are sure to hear.

Snow And Ice

Gently sloping snowfields with good runouts into scree slopes or vegetation are favorite mountain playgrounds. However, when snowfields are long and steep, ending in boulder fields or near the edge of cliffs, they must be treated with extreme caution!

Here are a few safety tips:

• Stay off potentially hazardous snowfields unless you have proper footwear (good stiff-soled boots with textured bottoms to grip snow). Even then, only cross if you must get to the other side and no better route exists.
• If you slip and fall on a snowfield, turn onto your belly with your feet facing downhill, spread your legs and kick your toes into the snow. Lift your body putting all of your weight onto your hands and feet. As your hands and feet dig into the snow, your body is slowed down.
• Do not attempt crossing steep snowfields unless you have an ice axe and know how to use it! In emergencies, a long sharp rock, or walking stick can be used in place of an ice axe.
• If a slope is icy, you need crampons (they are metal spikes that attach to the bottom of your boots). Be sure you know how to use crampons before venturing onto a dangerous slope with them. If improperly used, kicking steps with crampons can easily cause you to flip over backwards. In such instances serious injury is almost certain.
• Dark bands on a snowfield are usually signs of icy patches. It is also important to remember that snow that is soft in direct sunlight can quickly harden into glare ice in the shade.
• Never venture out onto snow wearing improper footwear (for example sneakers or cowboy boots). Footwear has been a critical factor in several backcountry accidents in Glacier.

The Wet Slope

All wet rock is potentially dangerous. Three ingredients are involved in this hazard: moisture, temperature, and a north-facing slope.

Moisture: There must be a source of moisture. Look for snowfields above you on the slopes, springs that form streams high up, and of course any recent storm activity, especially if there is snow.

Temperature: The temperature, of course, must go below freezing to create ice, but any cool temperature will allow moisture to linger, especially with light winds. To gauge temperature, for every 1,000 feet of elevation gain, the temperature drops 3-4 degrees F. In a storm, this temperature difference can double. So, if you know what the temperature is at the bottom, your elevation, and the elevation of your proposed destination, you can roughly figure the danger zones on any peak.

Slope: The most dangerous slopes are north-facing slopes because they receive little or no sunlight. Using a compass declination (north 0 degrees, east 90 degrees, south 180 degrees, and west 270 degrees). Anything with a northerly bearing (271 degrees - 89 degrees) is potentially dangerous with the east and west extremes getting sun either early or late in the day. Between 315 degrees (NW) and 45 degrees (NE) virtually no sunlight reaches the rock.

Without sunlight, a slope creates its own cool mini-climate with the rock insulating itself against the sun's warmth. Cool temperatures preserve moisture. Sunlight dries rock quickly, but where there is little sunlight or cool tem peratures verglas can linger for days.

Ice creates the most treacherous slope, but any wet slope will be slippery. Gullies, being a mountain's natural drainage system, are often wet throughout the summer season. If a route you are following includes a gully, take care to explore how much moisture you are likely to encounter in these areas prior to starting. Though open slopes are much less likely to be a problems, they can also be treacherous if covered by a fine layer of ice (verglas).

If you are not sure about high country conditions, ask. If you cannot get satisfactory information, find out as much as you can about recent weather, the altitude and declination of your route.

Any time you have reasonable doubt concerning route conditions, especially if you do not have proper equipment or technique to deal with specific conditions, you should reconsider your plans.

Moving Water

Moving water always deserves great respect. This is perhaps the most dangerous hazard in Glacier because it is so deceiving. Especially along roadways, people venture near fast moving water without understanding the danger, or having the proper equipment (especially good hiking shoes). Even narrow streams are hazardous. Remember, it is not how wide a stream is that makes it dangerous, but how much water flows through it and the nature of the material on the bottom. Narrow streams are often deeper and move much faster.

When near moving water:

• Do not venture out onto wet rocks or logs. It is especially important to keep from exploring needlessly above waterfalls and rapids.
• When traveling along a stream, know where waterfalls and rapids are located. If you are not sure of the terrain, assume that such water hazards are near.
• Do not overlook the danger of still water. All bodies of water in mountainous areas are cold, often frigid. Even good swimmers have panicked when experiencing the intense shock of cold water.
• If you must cross an unbridged stream or river, be sure to loosen backpack straps. Use a third support point (such as a ski pole, walking stick, etc.). As a general rule, cross at the widest point, the current will be gentler, and the water shallower at such points.

If You Fall In

1. Try to position yourself so that you are floating face up with your feet heading downstream to ward off obstacles.
2. Get to the bank or any object you can grab. If you can, pull yourself carefully from the water. Do not stand up too quickly. You have gained nothing if you slip back in. You can yell for assistance just as effectively grasping the rock while on your stomach, and you are a lot safer.
3. If at all possible, wait for someone to come and get you.

Not much attention is given to the threat of moving water, but it is by far the greatest killer in Glacier. Many more people have died in water accidents in recent years than have died in encounters with bears over the entire history of the park.

Wildlife

When traveling in the backcountry, we are entering the homes of many wild animals such as the bighorn sheep, elk, grizzly bear, moose, mountain lion, and of course, the symbol of Glacier National Park, the rocky mountain goat. Glacier is one of the last homes of these and other wild species in the lower forty-eight states. If they are to remain in such places as Montana, we must respect their habitat and needs.

First, we must remember that these animals are wild. They are disturbed by the unexpected. They are unpredictable. They may be passive or aggressive. After all, they are "wild." When traveling in the backcountry, we must always remember that we are the intruder. It is important that we respect their needs and minimize disruption to their lives.

Second, we must respect that their habitat is limited. They do not have the freedom to wander outside park boundaries. Development has introduced rules that can never be understood by these animals, such as roads, farms and cities. In the park, they are a marvel to see and enjoy. Outside the park, they are perceived as a threat to our 'civilized' ways. As such, we must defer to their needs within park boundaries.

If we wish them to survive here, we need to make it possible for them to thrive in smaller areas. We must help them to thrive where there is more competition for food, more species sharing the wilderness terrain, less variety in their habitat. We must learn how to minimize the negative impact we impose on them by our presence in the backcountry. So much of the world these great beasts evolved in has disappeared. What remains of these protected habitats must be carefully managed and used.

The simplest (and most dangerous) kind of wildlife disturbance to avoid is that which attracts animals, causing them to lose their wildness.

• Do not feed wildlife.
• Do not leave food around, making it noticeable to wildlife.
• Do not approach animals to take photographs. (Example: A hiking group appearing over a ridge will cause bighorn sheep to flee, while approaching them from below causes little concern.)
• Urinate in pit toilets or on durable surfaces away from campgrounds or popular resting spots to prevent destructive digging by animals are attracted to the salts in our urine.

General Tips for Dealing with Wildlife: Help Wildlife Remain Wild:

• Do not feed wildlife.
• Do not leave food around, making it noticeable to wildlife.
• Do not approach animals to take photographs.
• Urinate in pit toilets or on durable surfaces away from campgrounds or popular resting spots to prevent destructive digging by animals are attracted to the salts in our urine.
• Know when and where you are likely to meet key animals.
• Know where animals are likely to be found when you are in the backcountry. Do your best to see them first so that you can avoid surprising them.
• Always make lots of noise.

React cautiously when you encounter wild animals:

• Do not turn your back.
• Talk to animals in a low calm voice.
• Back away slowly.
• Avert your gaze (do not stare at them).
• Always give wildlife distance and the right-of-way.
• Never corner or surprise a large animal. Even a deer can be dangerous when frightened. Mutual curiosity will often allow you to get close to large animals, but when this occurs, do not appear too interested. Pretend to be going about your own business.
• Stopping to take pictures is not advisable if a large animal is treating you with suspicion, or as a threat.
• If they feel threatened, most animals are capable of attacking a person; especially to protect territory or their young.
• Most wild animals are most dangerous during their mating season. (Example: Moose, like grizzly bears, are kings of the wild and know it. They will either just stand there and look at you or attack. Hiding behind a tree is usually sufficient to avoid an attack. Moose are not the most intelligent beasts. If they do not see you, they will probably forget what they were attacking. During the early to middle fall (mating season), moose attack anything in sight!)

Guidelines for reacting to wildlife encounters in general, are generally true for dealing with grizzly and black bears, and mountain lions. However, there are important exceptions. The most important differences to remember are when confronting:

• a grizzly bear, always remain passive
• a black bear or a mountain lion, act aggressively

The Bear

"We keep bears not because they are an essential part of nature but because of what they do for the human mind body and soul.(T)here is no other animal in North America that drives our imagination as does the bear. Anyone who chooses to travel on foot unarmed in grizzly country has accepted a potentially dangerous challenge." - Stephen Herrero, Bear Attacks; Their Causes and Avoidance

The tension between the aesthetics of wilderness and wildlife, and issues of personal safety in the backcountry are as focused on the wilderness experience in Glacier Park as on any single wilderness area in the world.

As a biosphere preserve and national park, Glacier is dedicated to preserving the wilderness environment and the wildlife heritage existing within its boundaries. (This pledge is dramatized by the battle to protect and preserve the grizzly bear in Glacier National Park, the last stronghold of this animal in the lower 48 states.) At the same time, there is strong sentiment to make wilderness parks like Glacier safe for visitors, neutralizing such animal threats as the grizzly bear. Unfortunately, neutralizing the threat of the grizzly bear in the northern conti nental divide ecosystem centered around Glacier and in the greater Yellowstone ecosystem may also seal the fate of the specie in the lower 48 states.

Any balance between the aesthetics of wilderness and the reasonable safety of park visitors is a narrow traverse along a razor-tipped ridge with an abyss dropping of the either side. As such, wilderness policy development is intensely emotional because it deals with an paradox in human nature. On the one hand, we have a need to protect and nurture individuals from unreasonable risk. On the other hand, we have an inbred need for wilderness and the risks and challenges found within it.

For many of us, the bear is the symbol of truly wild country and we believe there is a value in keeping them wild. As such, the bear issue in Glacier is emotional; an issue of the spirit as well as an issue of safety. Though it is over -dramatized, it is a major hazard that must be dealt with.

A third dimension is that the threat of the grizzly is different from most defined threats. It is not predictable, like a swiftly moving stream or racing automobile. A bear is a living, unpredictable creature. It can think. And when it chooses, it uses its intelligence to stalk people as prey. Both positive and negative, this is the nightmare and mystique of the bear, especially the Grizzly.

The healthy response is to prepare yourselves for this threat like any others, working to understand it, and knowing what to do when in situations arise that present the potential of a confrontation.

Black and Grizzly Bears
The Grizzly can grow to weigh over 1200 pounds, although individual bears in the Glacier ecosystem rarely grow larger than 600 pounds. Standing upright, it has been known to reach nine feet in height. It is characterized by a high muscular hump above its shoulders and long, curved, exposed claws that are good for digging, although too long and dull for effective tree climbing. The black bear often grows to better than 200 pounds. Standing upright it is usually five to six feet tall. The most significant difference between the black and grizzly is that the black bear can climb, giving it an advan tage in more heavily wooded areas. The grizzly bear's size and strength give it superiority in more open areas. Both black and grizzly bears range in color from black to brown to blonde.

Bear Temperment
It must be noted that bears, like people, are individuals. They have different moods and they go pretty much where they want, which may not be where you expect them to be! When in the backcountry, always make noise to announce your presence and look for signs of bears.

Habitat and Diet
Bears (both blacks and grizzlies) prefer territories with a lot of diversity. During the short mountain summer, they need to gain enough weight sustain them during the long winter. Both grizzly and black bears are omnivores. Their diet includes a wide variety of plants (90 percent) and animals (10 percent). Typically, a bear diet includes plants and fruits like cow parsnip, horsetail, glacier lily, grasses and sedges, and berries - especially huckleberries; animals, fish and insects like ground squirrels and the cache of roots and bulbs stashed in their dens; and mice, fish, ants, moths, and any dead animals. Both grizzly and black bears need diverse habitat to acquire the diet they need to survive.

Black bears usually prefer the protection of the forest. Since forest alone does not possess the diversity of foods a needs, black bears must also seek out habitat that includes openings with grassy meadows, berry patches and stream bottoms. Grizzly bears prefer habitat with a variety of evergreen forests, alpine meadows, brushy chutes, grasslands and burnt-over areas. The more open the terrain, the greater the chance it will be grizzly habitat.

At most, 10% of the bear's diet is meat. Most of that need is supplied by dead animals found in the mountains. The most popular "living" source of meat for the bear in Glacier is the Columbian Ground Squirrel.

• April-May. Throughout the spring, both black and grizzly bears are most likely to be found at lower elevations along streams and rivers, feeding on grasses and forbs (non-grass herbs), and at the base of avalanche chutes feeding on decaying animals killed during the winter.
• June-July. During June and early July they gradually move to higher elevations, following the snows as they recede. Their diet during this period is largely grasses, and forbs, including horsetail, cowparsnip, and glacier lily and spring beauty bulbs.
• July-August. From late July through August bears generally move to lower elevations to feed on the ripening berry crops, largely huckleberries, service berries, mountain ash, and hawthorn. However, high elevation feeding on moths and possibly lady bugs is well documented in Glacier. Climbers need to be especially alert for grizzlies well above treeline, including sows with cubs at this time.
• September. In September the bears once again move into the high country.
• October. Late in October they begin to prepare their winter dens.
• November. By late November most bears are hibernating.

Tips to Minimize Confrontations
Treat all bears as dangerous, not just the grizzly. The best way to avoid confrontations is to develop an understanding of the bear's varying habitat and recognize where bears are most likely to be found. Bears are potentially active any time of the day or night. More often they are active during the morning and evening hours. When they aren't foraging, they rest in daybeds that are typically located next to a windfall, in dense brush, or in a depression left by a fallen tree.

Bear Signs
If you are observant, you will probably see signs of bear activity while visiting Glacier's backcountry. It is not uncommon to see bear tracks on the trail. Grizzly tracks are as long as a persons but twice as wide with claws extending well beyond the toes. Black bear tracks are much smaller and more rounded with claws close to the paw print.

It is not unusual to see bear droppings along the trail. They typically consist of partly digested berries, seeds and grass. When huckleberries are ripe, droppings are often a deep purple color.

Meadows often have large holes surrounded by haphazard piles of dirt. These are unusually where bears have dug up the home of some unfortunate rodent in search of the animal's winter cache of plants and bulbs, or of course, the animal itself. Other meadows may appear "roto-tilled" where bears have dug searching for the bulbs of glacier lilies, spring beauties, and other forbs.

When hiking in the forest, also look for bear trees. These are trees where bears rub their backs and sometimes bite or make vertical scratches seen as high as 15 feet off the ground. Large dug-in "footprints" may be seen near the base. Other trees appear stripped of bark near the base where bears have scraped the cambium layer from under the outer layer of bark. This sometimes kills the tree if it is completely girdled.

Avoiding Confrontations
Most confrontations between people and bears are the results of hikers surprising bears at close range. Though such confrontations cannot be totally avoided, if you follow a few simple rules, you can minimize the chances of unwanted encounters.

1. Make lots of noise (whistle, talk, sing, wear bells). The noisier you are, the safer you are.
2. Hike with other people. There is safety in numbers. Most confrontations occur with individuals hiking alone or in pairs. It is especially risky hiking at either dusk or dawn. Use extra caution in the fall when bears are actively feeding to put on more weight.
3. Avoid hiking at night. Bears are more active and vision is greatly limited.
4. Watch for bear signs. Scan ahead and to your sides, especially when in diverse terrain.
5. Use added caution when traveling off-trail. When on or near a trail most bears are aware that people may be present. When off-trail, bears do not expect to see people. This makes it more likely that any bear you meet will be startled.
6. Be especially alert when you are in an environment where hearing (a strong wind, rushing water) or visibility (thick brush or a turn in the trail) is limited or you are traveling through an area with abundant food (huckleberries, cow parsnips, glacier lilies), diverse habitat (transitions between forest, meadows and streams)
7. Make a wide detour, or if that is not possible, consider aborting a trip if you come across a large dead animal near the trail. Report it to a ranger at the first opportunity. This scenario is explosive!
8. Do not travel with a dog (especially if it is not on a leash). Bears and dogs are natural enemies. There are several documented incidents of dogs seeking out bears, getting in trouble and leading the angry bear back to the master.
9. Limit packing odorous foods. Seal all foods in plastic bags or airtight containers.
10. Use a minimum of sweet smelling substances such as scented deodorant or perfume. (Bear researchers have been known to successfully use such scents as bait to attract bears for research purposes.)
11. Women may want to avoid the backcountry during their menstrual period.
12. Sexual activity may attract bears.
13. Do not depend on contraptions to protect you such as firearms or pepper aerosols. They both have worked in certain situations, but remember, when they do not stop the bear, you have a much angrier animal confronting you. Also, guns are not legal in Glacier, nor is hunting!

Confrontations
Assess The Bear's Behavior. Bears are like people, they have their own personality. One may be fun-loving, another angry. Depending on their mood, they may be passive, curious, or aggressive. Typically, a bear will flee when it becomes aware of an approaching human. You will likely never know you were close to a bear. When a bear has become accustomed to having people around, it doesn't run away but rather continues what it is doing. NEVER assume that a bear is aware of you. Under no circumstances should you approach the bear!

When you have an uncomfortably close encounter with a bear, what a bears does helps tell you how you need to respond. What a confrontation with a bear (either passive or aggressive) ultimately comes down to is a contest of their wits and intelligence versus ours. Even when a bear appears to be passive, remember, it may change its mind!

Passive Behavior
Though bears have adequate vision, they usually rely more on their senses of smell and hearing. If a bear stands up with its ears erect and head moving from side to side sniffing the air, it is utilizing all of its senses to identify you. It may also circle you cautiously. Though this behavior is passive, once it identifies you, it still may choose to attack. When a bear is obviously aware of your presence but chooses to ignore you, this is passive behavior.

When a grizzly bear makes no aggressive motion toward you, slowly back off. If it sees you, slowly back away until it is out of your line of vision. When you are away from the bear, exit as quickly as you see fit. Never run away from a bear while you can still see it. Bears, like all animals, like a chase, and in a short sprint can outrun a horse! If the bear pays noticeable attention to your movements, move with more caution. If you have been standing still for a time, test the bear with a test movement, such as slowly waving an arm over your head. If you encounter a female with cubs, or any bear near a carcass, treat it as an aggressive encounter!

It is important to note that you treat an aggressive grizzly different that an aggressive black bear. When a grizzly bear chomps its jaws, makes a woofing or huffing sound, keeps its head down with its ears laid back, or initiates a partial charge, it is exhibiting aggressive behavior. Whenever a bear moves toward you, considered that to be aggressive behavior.

Confrontation with a Grizzly Bear

• Keep calm. Do not threaten it and do not show your fear.
• Do not make any abrupt moves or noises that may startle the bear. Never approach the bear!
• At this point, there are no clear-cut strategies that have always worked. What is important is that you allow the bear to identify who you are and to convince it that you are not a treat.
• Pick out a tree that is large enough to get you above the bear's reach. Only choose this alternative if you can reach the tree quickly (without running) and it will quickly get you above the bears reach. Remember, a grizzly will follow you up if there are strong, low branches.
• Never turn your back on the bear.
• If you move, do it very slowly. Quick movement may be perceived as aggressive behavior on your part.
• Do not directly meet the eyes of the bear. Act as passive as possible, diverting your eyes and head down or to the sides.

If the Bear Attacks
If the bear attacks, one option is to get up a tree fast. Drop something like a camera, canteen, or pack to momentarily distract it while you head for your tree to climb beyond that bear's reach. The reason you do this is to try to buy yourself a little time. When you start to retreat, the bear will come after you without hesitation. If you do not get out of reach, you will be mauled. Do not try this maneuver unless it is absolutely necessary. At best, this allows the bear to get food in your presence. This is a dangerous precedent to set with a bear a threat to all future hikers!

Even though Grizzlies do not climb they have been known to use sturdy branches close to the ground like rungs on a ladder. Adults have been known to reach nearly 20 feet up in some trees. Grizzly cubs and black bears can climb. In such instances, it is a matter of how interested they are to follow you up.

If caught in an open area, play dead, Iying on either your stomach or your side, with your legs drawn up against your chest. Leave your pack on and clasp your hands behind your neck. When the bear has left, try to find a tree to climb for added caution. Allow the bear ample time to leave the area. The reason for this is that sometimes the bear will return. If the grizzly tries to turn you over, extend an arm to resist. You want to remain on your stomach.

Confrontation with a Black Bear

Stephen Herrero in his book "Bear Attacks" notes that in an aggressive encounter with a black bear, you want to handle it opposite of a grizzly attack! With a black bear, you want to intimidate the bear. Fight back. Make a lot of noise. Wave your arms. Try to establish dominance. Past incidents show that passive behavior with a black bear is much more likely to result in severe injury.

The Mountain Lion

Mountain lions are large cats typically growing to a body length of from six to eight feet, with their long tail making up about 1/3 of their body length. The adult mountain lion weighs between 90 and 150 pounds with males outweighing females. Mountain lions are known by several names; catamount, cougar, painter, panther, and puma. Originally found throughout the continental United States, this animal is only located in a couple small pockets of rugged land east of the Mississippi and the mountain areas of the West. Mountain lions' preferred diet is deer or elk, but will take whatever is available. They have been known to prey on elk, small mammals, and sometimes domestic animals (including pets). They typically stalk their prey quietly, finishing with a short charge that knocks they prey over, followed by biting the victim's head and neck.

Mountain lions are inveterate travelers. They are predators in need of large game. Hunting in one area constantly would deplete game, so lions often travel as much as 20-25 miles in a single day in search of food. The home area of a single mountain lion may be from 30-60 square miles, with one lion's territory overlapping the territory used by several other lions.

The mountain lion is very strong, fast and armed with needle-sharp claws and teeth. They are built for stealth, not endurance. They usually travel at an easy walk, stopping to watch and listen for game. They only trot when they have a definite destination. Mountain lions are sprinters. They will usually stalk as close to prey as possible, taking advantage of both wind and cover. Lions prefer to be within 25 feet or less of their prey before beginning their charge. They are usually able to pounce on their prey within two to three bounds.

These cats usually hunt in the early morning and late evening rather than after dark because these are the times when the prey they feed upon are themselves feeding. These are the times when we must take the most care watching for their presence.

Mountain lion signs:

• tracks are the most common sign
• claw marks on treed used to sharpen claws
• smell of urine on "scent posts"
• bones, hair and animal skins of prey are common at den entrances
• scrape marks to mark a lion's territory. These markers include leaves, twigs, grasses and snow into a heap with urine or feces on top.

Precautions:

• Make noise when hiking to avoid surprising a mountain lion.
• Do not hike alone.
• Hike as a group (keep children close at hand).
• Place all food, garbage and pets in secure areas when backpacking.

If you encounter a mountain lion:

• Do not run!
• Talk calmly, avert your gaze, stand tall and slowly back away.
• Do not crouch.
• Do not turn away.
• Pick up small children and attempt to appear as large as possible.
• If an attack seems imminent, act aggressively. (Unlike bears, mountain lions may be frightened away by being struck with rocks or big sticks, or by being kicked or hit.)

These suggestions are very similar to those for a grizzly, but, again, different on one very important point. With a grizzly always act passive. With a mountain lion (and black bear), act aggressively.

Mountain Lion Attacks
A mountain lions may stalk a person, but attacks are very rare. There have also been unprovoked attacks on people, but again, these actions are exceedingly rare. When they do occur, the victims are usually children, small adults, or family pets. Though mountain lion attacks are rarely fatal, the result is often serious injury. Many lion attacks have been foiled by a strong defense was made by the person being attacked, even by a child.

Subjective Hazards

Subjective Hazards, Wilhelm Paulcke's second hazard category deals with a person's physical and spiritual strengths and weaknesses. Each of us is unique. We vary in height, weight, coordination, reflexes, endurance, circulation, sight, and mental abilities (concentration, perception, adaptability). These natural strengths and aptitudes are in turn influenced by our mental state. Altered by overexertion, or an excessive loss of body heat or fluids can greatly influence our physical and mental abilities at any time. Paulcke's major subjective hazards:

1. overestimating knowledge of the mountain environment (usually the result of a lack of alpine experience)
2. underestimating the difficulties to be encountered
3. a poor sense of orientation.

Helpful Hints To Help You To Stay Fit And Alert

Practice Efficiency
Always conserve your strength and pace your activity. If you discover yourself breathing heavily over a long period of time, you are probably pushing yourself too hard. Pace yourself. If you start out too fast, you will tire more quickly. A good rule is to plan short and if necessary frequent rest stops. If you breaks that are too long, your body has a hard time getting going again.

The way that you walk also has a lot to do with how much exertion and wear your body can tolerate in a day. When walking uphill, don't walk on your toes. It is a lot easier on your legs if you stretch your heels down to the ground. If you are going up a slope (off trail) and find it difficult to keep your heels down, consider switchbacking at an indirect angle across slopes to lessen the angle of your ascent. Allowing your heels to rest on the ground greatly reduces the stress to your ankles and lower legs.

When traveling up a slope, conserve energy by:1. straightening your legs, 2. locking your uphill knee as you shift your weight to your upslope leg, and 3. lean into the slope as you step. This allows gravity to assists you as you bring the other leg forward into the next step up.

When going downhill, keep your knees slightly bent. This disperses the stress of being pulled downhill onto your leg muscles, rather than your joints. Also, try widening your stride to both sides. This disperses a portion of your momentum to the sides rather than all downhill.

A good rule-of-thumb to help you gauge your ability to complete any given hike or climb is to figure out the trip's mileage and elevation gain. Compare this with hikes or climbs (or equivalents in distance and exertion like jog ging, bicycling, etc.) you have completed in the recent past. If the outing is more strenuous than you are accus tomed to, allow yourself added time for rests, prepare yourself mentally for the physical discomforts of the addi tional exertion, or look for another outing that is better suited to your abilities. You need to learn how to monitor your physical and mental condition. Be sure you have adequate food and liquid and to manage your energy needs and body temperature, and adequate clothing to keep yourself warm and dry.

To hike or climb comfortably and efficiently, you need to give your body the proper "fuels.". Your body needs three types of fuel to keep it running efficiently:

1. 1. Oxygen: If you strive to hike or climb, you must be able to supply your muscles with adequate oxygen to keep you loose and your mind alert. Any exercise program aimed at keeping yourself in good shape must stress endurance and breathing. Bicycling, jogging, swimming, and walking are all good exercises.
2. 2. Food: You must supply your body with enough nourishment to ensure that at the end of the day you are still strong and alert. Carbohydrates and sugars are the best food choices. These foods quickly translate into sugars our bodies can use.
3. 3. Water: Water is the catalyst that keeps everything in our bodies functioning properly. If we allow ourselves to dehydrate, our muscles cramp, our bodies overheat (heat exhaustion), and our minds become dulled. All of the advantages you gain by working out, preparing appropriate outdoor skills and studying your route can be negated if you have not maintained enough liquid in your body.

Balancing Body Temperature
About 40 percent of your body heat is generated between the base of the neck and where your neck connects with your skull. In warm weather, you must be able to vent excess heat. In cold weather, you must be able to conserve body heat. Much of your body heat is generated along your backbone and neck. You must learn to regulate this heat, venting it in warm weather, or protecting it when it is cold.

The second most effective parts of the human anatomy for venting body heat are the extremities - your hands and feet. In cold weather, to keep warm, it is important to protect both your head and hands.

No matter the outside temperature, when you are physically active, your body generates heat in excess of 98.6 degrees. The result is perspiration. Moisture (be it perspiration or precipitation) wicks heat away from the body much faster than air.

When you exercise, it is not unusual for your body temperature to hover around 102 degrees F. If your body temperature goes higher than this, especially above 104 degrees F., problems begin to develop. At a temperature of 109 degrees, death is likely. Likewise, if your body temperature is allowed to fall below 94 degrees; death is likely unless something is done to change the temperature trend.

In cold weather, you must work to keep you body temperature at a level where you do not perspire any more than necessary. To keep warm, it is important to remain dry and to have enough insulation to maintain your body temperature as close to 98.6 degrees as possible. The best way to conserve your body heat is to make sure that those areas that vent heat quickly are covered. The old expression says; "If your hands are cold, put on a hat. If you're still cold, put on gloves." In the face of sudden wind or cloud cover, three small inexpensive items can be quite helpful:

• a pair of light weight gloves
• a bandana, to place around the neck
• a light hat.

Using these three items, you can do much to conserve body heat, maintaining your energy level and remaining comfortable.

In warm weather, you need enough to drink enough liquid to allow your body to vent excess heat. Your body does this by perspiring. If you cannot drink enough liquid to allow for adequate perspiration, your body loses an impor tant mechanism to vent excess heat.

Medical Emergencies Relating to Body Temperature

There are three environmental emergencies which healthy individuals can fall prey to when they push themselves beyond their personal limits. Overheating or hyper-thermia, can become heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Hypo-thermia is the excess loss of body heat .

Heat Exhaustion (heat prostration): This is a mild form of shock caused when your blood pools in the blood vessels near the skin's surface in an attempt to rid your body of excess heat, because there is not enough moisture in your body to allow it to escape through perspiration. Symptoms of this problem are:

• shallow breathing
• weak pulse
• cold, clammy skin
• heavy perspiration
• a general weakness
• dizziness

If you or another member of your party exhibit these symptoms you should:

1. Move to a cool place to rest,
2. remove enough clothing to cool off without creating a chill,
3. drink fluids with salt or a commercial electrolyte fluid, and
4. if the ailment gets worse, treat for shock and send someone for help.

Heatstroke (sunstroke): This is a more severe extension of heat exhaustion, a true medical emergency! It occurs when a person stops sweating in response to warm temperatures. Symptoms of heatstroke include:

• deep breathing followed by shallow breathing
• a rapid strong pulse followed by a rapid weak pulse
• dry, hot skin
• dilated pupils
• a loss of consciousness
• possible muscular twitching or convulsions

If you or another member of your party exhibit these symptoms:

1. move to a cooler place immediately
2. remove as much clothing as possible and cover the victim with a wet garment. Body heat must be lowered rapidly, or brain cells will begin to die
3. place snow (preferably in plastic bags) or cold damp clothes under both armpits, wrists, ankles, and on both sides of the neck
4. go for help to evacuate the victim as fast as possible.

Hypothermia: You experience hypothermia when your body cools to a point where you are no longer able to generate enough heat to support life. As your body temperature falls, your vital organs cease to function normally. The result is a loss of muscle energy, the ability to concentrate, and to form good judgments. The tools of hypothermia are cold, wind, and wetness encouraged by a dwindling supply of body energy. Hypoth ermia is blamed for nearly 85% of all wilderness deaths. Take this threat seriously! Warning signs that can help you identify approaching problems include:

• poor reflex actions, stumbling, poor control of arms and legs, slurred speech
• a need for frequent and prolonged rest stops
• a dazed, careless attitude, and limited attention span.

As these early signs of hypothermia get worse, they develop into a more severe set of symptoms. Indications of exposure are:

• uncontrollable shivering
• drowsiness
• confusion
• body weakness
• the inability to see these symptoms in yourself.

The best way to fight hypothermia is to understand how body heat is lost so that steps can be taken to stop heat loss. Body heat is lost in five ways:

1. Radiation. This is the emission of heat from a body. At 40 degrees F., 50 percent of your body heat production can if your head is left unprotected. At 5 degrees F., 75 percent of your body heat can be lost.
2. Conduction. This is the transmission of heat from a warmer medium into a colder one. Examples of this are losing heat because you sit on the cold ground without protection, or losing heat in water. Water can extract heat from your body 24 times faster than air!
3. Convection. When heat is transmitted away from your body by the motion of air. A principal function of clothing is to keep a layer of warm air next to your skin. Any passing wind will tend to remove this heat layer. Wind chill is the result of convection.
4. Evaporation. As moisture evaporates from your skin, it takes heat with it.
5. Respiration. In cold weather, you inhale cold air, heating it, and exhale warm, moist air, losing that heat.

The best way to avoid hypothermia is to have adequate rest and plenty of food and liquids, to avoid wind and rain, terminate any situation that causes the symptoms of exposure, and remove all wet clothing as fast as possible. The simplest way to terminate situations that cause exposure is to add dry insulation to your body, minimizing the flow of heat away from your skin.

Insulation
The purpose of all clothing is to help retain a body temperature of 98.6 degrees. There are three factors that determine the effectiveness of any garment in a specific situation: Insulation allows you to retain body heat when external temperatures are significantly lower than 98.6 degrees, breathabilityallows excess heat to escape from your body, and wicking helps move excess moisture away from your skin's surface. Insulation is effective for cold, breathability is for dealing with excess warmth (whether caused by hot weather or physical activity), wicking is important where excess body heat becomes perspiration.

For maximum flexibility, select lighter articles of clothing that can be combined in layers. This offers maximum flexibility, a maximum number of clothing combinations, and a minimum of weight. (See the appendix for a more detailed discussion of which fibers, weaves and garments will help you to prepare for mountain weather.)

Minimizing Subjective Hazards

Develop Concentration

• A good rule is to always keep your mind on your surroundings, not sore feet, or thirst.
• Don't take anything for granted. Watch your step!
• When you want or need to look around, pause. Most falls occur when people do not pay attention to where they are going.
• Know how to identify objective hazards and be alert for potential warning signs.
• Always look for the unexpected, be it a beautiful flower, or an approaching storm. Both beauty and danger linger in wilderness environments. Learn to see them side by side. If you don't accept both of them as part of the same reality, you will come up shortchanged.

Be Adaptable

The abilities to improvise, to observe and recall features of the landscape for future orientation, to identify potential wildlife habitat, and to react appropriately to problems (or beauty) are important parts of any wilderness experience. The experienced hiker/mountaineer allows for the unexpected, knows which options are open when the hazards appear, and when and how to react to them. For example, a good mountaineer, while ascending a peak is already thinking about the route down. This person is taking mental notes of the different options, and looking back to note the natural markers that will help guide the route back home.

Exercise Good Judgment

• Know your limits. Be willing to admit that something is too difficult, or strenuous.
• Select compatible companions with similar abilities. This is particularly important on a climb.
• Do not climb anything you would not be willing to descend unless you have researched alternate paths that are ideally accessible from several points.
• Do not allow yourself to go beyond your abilities and endurance. Discovering this during an outing is usually too late.
• Always let someone know where you are going and when you expect to return.
• Know when to turn back.

Reasons for turning back are:

• an approaching storm (especially a thunderstorm)
• not enough daylight to complete a climb before dark (If time is a factor, set a turn-around time and stick to it! Rushing breeds errors, and forced bivouacs are at best very uncomfortable.)
• sickness in the party
• an overly difficult route, especially without a known (and hopefully less difficult) descent route.

Causative Hazards

Causative hazards, Paulcke"s third category, are the interaction of objective (environmental) and subjective (per sonal) hazards.

A simple examples is someone in the backcountry encounters a storm (objective hazard). They are without proper clothing (subjective hazard), they do not see signs of the approaching storm (subjective), or perhaps underestimate the storm's potential danger (subjective). Also, they overestimate their own personal skills and conditioning (subjective).Virtually all accidents are caused by an interaction of objective and subjective hazards.

From the above description, causative hazards seem to be straight forward. Unfortunately, this is not always the case. More often, it is a chain of small subjective errors that slowly build to create more dangerous situations. A party makes a number of poor choices which negates its margin of safety. Then they are struck by an objective hazard that may not be significant on its own, but with the group in a weaker position, it just makes enough of a difference to create a dangerous situation.

Scenario Illustrating Causative Hazards
A couple of seasoned climbers plan a strenuous ridge walk climbing one mountain and hiking across a ridge to another peak before dropping back down to a trail. In the days prior to the trip several other people hear about the climb and join the group. The result is a large group with varied abilities.

Such an occurrence is fine if the trek is not difficult, but in this case, though the trip is not difficult, it is long and there are long sections that do not have known escape routes, should a change of plan occur. To complete this route participants need to have adequate equipment, food and water, and need to be in decent physical shape. Already, a number of potential problems face this group.

On the day of the climb, the group gets off to a late start because of problems coordinating so many participants. When they do get started, there is a need to move a little faster than would have otherwise been necessary. As a result, some participants are physically pressed and start tiring before the more difficult climbing begins. The initial slope has a variety of safe, interesting routes upward, so the party spreads out, minimizing the danger of rockfall. This breaks the group up into several smaller parties. This is good, but this also breaks up the group's continuity as groups move at very different paces to the first peak. A full hour passes between the time when the first and last climbers reach the top. Another hour is spent eating lunch. The long break makes some of the climbers impatient.

Starting toward the second peak, some weaker climbers soon decide they have had enough action for the day and want to go back. The leaders, not willing to lose this opportunity, quickly figure an alternate route for the weaker group, departing from that spot. The route they select looks good, but snakes out into a canyon that no participant is familiar with. It seems to go through on the map, so they go with it. The building irritability of this unbalanced group causes an unnecessary risk an error in judgment by the stronger climbers. The weaker climbers are guilty of not realistically assessing the demands of the climb and their ability to complete it. This situation could be avoided by noting the experience and athletic differences prior to the climb, starting with the idea that some would return after the first peak. More consideration could then be given to an earlier departure.

A bit later, a climber in the party develops a cramp. The group, already aggressive, decides to go on, leaving their troubled companion to await their return at a given point. Note. NEVER leave a person alone while on a climb, especially if that individual is ailing.)

Meanwhile, the climber with cramps gets impatient and decides to start back, walking off the cramp while de scending at a leisurely pace. Afraid that he will hold back the party (which is running late), this person decides to get a head start, assuming that the others will catch up with his slow pace.

Another error.
When the main party returns to the designated meeting spot some time later, they find that their companion is gone. Without a note or other sign, fearing an accident, they spend an hour looking for him. Even at a slow pace, the injured climber limps beyond a point where the rest of the group can catch up with him. Now there are three separate groups with no certain route.

In spreading out along the slope to search for the "lost" companion, what remains of the main group fails to stay high enough on an important ridge. They end up going down into this same unscouted gully. Now, the third group is running late as well as following a poor path down the mountain. All three groups end up bushwhacking through heavy thickets. They also discover that the topographical map failed to show that all of the streams in this drainage are bordered by short but steep cliffs. For each stream they reach, they must down-climb and then ascend steep, damp embankments.

To complicate the hardship is the uncertainty of the safety of the other group members, especially the lone climber with cramps. Not only is there ample opportunity for injury, there is also the always lingering threat of stumbling upon a grizzly bear in heavy underbrush. So, the group is split up, physically exhausted at the end of a difficult day and preoccupied by the stress of not knowing the safety of other group members.

As is true of most situations, everyone does get back to the trailhead safely, but multiple possibilities for injury or even death have been created by this chain of events. Because of a few judgmental errors, members of this group experience far more stress and exertion than would otherwise have been necessary. What if another objective hazard had appeared late in the day, like a storm front, and they had been caught by darkness? What about the possibility of meeting that bear? A real tragedy was only one common wilderness event removed from this group.

If you find yourself in this type of situation very often, odds are that sooner or later you will experience a wilderness emergency! This group escaped the harsher implications of their errors, but they did pay a price in the quality of their experi ence. Between the added exertion and worry for other group members, these climbers did not find the quality experience they had hoped to enjoy.

Conclusion

To the extent that you combine a knowledge of the rules and regulations of the natural world with an understand ing of your personal strengths and weaknesses, exercising good judgments, a rewarding, safe activity awaits you. It is also important to remember that you are only a momentary guests in this mountain environment.

Without shelter and adequate food at hand, few have the skill or will-power to survive extended visits into this often harsh and always demanding mountain environment. Yet, in the harshness and hardship, something is found that enriches.

Many are drawn in their own different ways to rediscover those challenges and satisfactions found in an intensive act, and fulfillment earned through varying levels of risk and strenuous activity. The nineteenth century mountain eer, Edward Whymper, perhaps expressed it best when he said, "The thing to be wished for is, not that mountains should become easier, but that men should become wiser and stronger."

Each of us needs to find our own arenas of personal growth, and test ourselves against the fires of its challenges. The key element in any symbolic act such as mountaineering or wilderness travel is to do it with excellence. Go out into the mountains, enjoy the panoramas, discover what your quality experiences are. If you do it with a thought for safety, a concern for the pristine environment, and a realistic understanding of your limits, skills, and goals, that quality experience will enrich your life not only now, but for many years to come.

Appendix : Clothing

Effective outdoor garments are made up of more than is visible to the eye. Design, though important, is only effective if the fibers and weave exhibit qualities that support what the design is working to accomplish. The fibers used and weave of clothing are what assures that a garment will do what you expect from it; be that insulation, breathability or the ability to wick moisture from your skin. Design must be accompanied by the right fibers and weaves if it is to be effective.

Natural Fibers
Cotton is very comfortable, durable, and warm when dry. It has the ability to hold up to three times its weight in moisture. For summer wear, this is desirable. For cold weather use, this can be a dangerous feature. Because it is slow to dry, it holds moisture against the skin where it can wick heat away from the skin long after a person has cooled down. It is a comfortable fiber next to your skin.

Wool is not as comfortable as cotton. Due to the corkscrew shape of its fibers, it creates dead air spaces within the bulk of the garment. This dead air space traps heat. These fibers also work to wick moisture away from the skin. Wool can hold up to 30% of its weight in moisture and still not feel damp. The corkscrew fibers of wool make it feel rough against your skin.

Silk is a fiber that conducts very little heat. This makes it quite warm considering its thickness and weight. It also wicks moisture reasonably well. This makes it appropriate for most strenuous activity where perspiration is of concern. Also, silk is extremely comfortable next to your skin.

Synthetic Fibers
Acrylic, a fiber resembling wool, is a common synthetic fiber. It is bulky but not as warm as wool. Although it does not naturally hold moisture, it is not as effective at wicking moisture as wool.

Polyester also isn't a good insulator. It conducts heat and cold freely and doesn't retain moisture. When combined with cotton (a poplin blend) the result merges the best features of both fibers. The cotton adds warmth and comfort. The polyester holds little moisture.

Cotton/polyester (poplin) blends are comfortable against the skin. In a tight weave, poplin blends make an excellent wind-proof cloth, and it can be treated to make a decent water-resistant garment. Polyester made into a pile fabric is a good insulator that effectively wicks water. It does not, however, offer protection from wind. Bunting is a polyester felt that reacts the same way.

Nylon is an extremely strong fiber. The traditional fiber is the dense thread seen in windbreakers. It is also used to make a softer, bulkier fiber called Taslon and bunting.Nylon holds very little moisture. In a tight weave treated with polyurethane, it makes a reliable, light, waterproof, wind-resistant garment. The only problem with nylon rainwear is that it not only seals out all precipitation, it seals in all perspirationa problem when one is active.

Polypropylene is an excellent synthetic equivalent to wool. It has a stretchable corkscrew-shaped fibers that make polypropylene excellent for form fitting garments. Polypropylene, like wool, effectively wicks moisture away from the skin, traps heat in tiny air pockets. It also holds virtually no water in its fibers. Polypropylene is comfortable against the skin and makes excellent undergarments for the serious outdoor person.

Capilene is a polyester. On its inside surface, capilene is a material that does not hold water. The outer layer is constructed to absorb moisture. Thus it draws moisture away from the skin as does wool or polypropylene.

Thermax is a hollow-cored polyester that traps heat as it radiated from your body. It also effectively wicks moisture away from your body.

Weaves and Knits
Woven fabrics are constructed by interlacing yarns at right angles. They retain their shape but do not stretch, so they do not conform to your body. When tightly woven, they are good for breaking the force of a strong wind. Woven fabrics vary greatly in appearance, strength and abrasion resistance. Examples of woven fabrics include canvas, chambray , denim, flannel, madras and taffeta.

Knitted fabrics are constructed by interlocking a single strand of yarn into a series of loops. These fabrics stretch, so they tend to fit closely to your body. This makes such garments very comfortable. Knitted fabrics are a good choice for the layer that rests against your skin. They provide warmth and when next to the body effectively wick moisture away from your skin. The disadvantage of such garments is that they do not offer effective protection from wind.

On warm days, a light, loosely knitted garment or a light weave are good choices. On cool days, combine a knitted fabric that conforms to your body (choosing a fabric that traps heat and wicks moisture away from the skin), with a jacket made of a tightly woven cloth to block wind.

Insulating Materials
Down is the undercoating of ducks and geese that keeps them warm in winter and cool in summer. It is light weight, breathable and it compacts very nicely. If it gets wet, however, it dries very slowly and when wet it almost entirely loses its insulating qualities.

Quallofil® is a synthetic down. Unlike down, it absorbs very little moisture and retains about 85 percent of its thermal qualities when wet. It is also fast drying and easy to clean. On the negative side, it does not breathe as well as down, so it is not as comfortable over a broad range of temperatures as down.

Micro-fibers (Thinsulate® and Thermolite®) are insulations consisting of hundreds of thousands of microscopic fibers (much smaller than down or Quallofil® fibers). Being so small, they take up less space and create less bulk, but they still trap a lot of air creating ample dead air space to maintain good insulation. Like Quallofil®, they stay warm when wet. However, both of these fibers are quite stiff, so they do not readily conform to your body shape.

Bunting, pile and fleece are sweater-like synthetic fibers that lightweight, quick-drying and warm. Like all knits, though, they do not insulate you well from wind.

Rain Garments
Waterproof garments are similar in appearance to windproof garments in appearance. The difference is that they are coated with a non-breathable waterproof finish or lined with a breathable microporous membrane or coating.

Non-breathable rain jackets are typically nylon jackets coated with PVC (a poly-vinyl-chloride) coating. The advantage of such garments is that they are less expensive. The disadvantage is that they do not breathe. They keep precipitation from reaching your skin but they also trap perspiration next to your skin.

There are several breathable waterproof garments on the market that allow perspiration to escape while stopping precipitation from the penetrating to your skin. Gore-Tex® is a breathable very fine membrane about .002" thick. It is so frail that it is always laminated to at least one other layer of material, usually a nylon. The Gore-Tex® membrane is made up of a series of very small pores. The pores are so small that they allowing water vapor to flow freely through, but stop condensed moisture because the surface tension of the moisture stops it from moving through the microscopic membrane. Gore-Tex has excellent breathability, but in a hard rain the membrane can become clogged, trapping in perspiration. In extreme cases, a hard rain can force water through the membrane. Other laminates that function line Gore-Tex® are Microtek® and Thintech®.

There are also several microporous polyurethane coatings coating on the market that impregnate a fabric, creating the same effect as Gore-Tex®. Some of the coating available include Entrant®, Helly-tech® and Ultrex®.

The disadvantage of these garments is that they can be quite expensive.

Basic Clothing List
When packing for a day hike or climb it is important that a maximum of protection is combined with a minimum of bulk and weight. As stated earlier, the three weather-related factors clothing must combat are temperature, wind and moisture. The best way to protect yourself against the negative effects of these weather-related factors is to pack garments that can be combined in layers.

A day hiker or climber should include these or similar clothing articles in their daypack:

• wool shirt and/or light sweater
• rain jacket (to protect against rain and wind)
• hat (to protect head from sun, cold or rain)
• light gloves
• bandana or scarf (to use around neck or head for warmth in cold weather or to mop perspiration in hot weather)
• plastic garbage bags are versatile items worth adding to your pack
• (optional) rain or wind pants

In colder weather, more bulk should be included in the pack, and the amount of cotton used in garments next to the skin should be kept to a minimum. In wet weather, keep dry clothing stored in a plastic bag.